Summary of entries in participation

The two main concerns of the research in this section are (i) the relationship between childhood and adolescent participation in sport/physical activity and ‘life-long participation’ and (ii) factors that facilitate or constrain participation, especially among young people.

The material on life-long participation contains three reviews of research (Shephard and Trudeau; Daley; Malina;), six longitudinal tracking studies (Thompson et al; Tammelin et al; Vanreusel et al; Beunen et al; Trudeau et al; Perkins et al; Kraut et al) and two retrospective studies (Taylor et al; Curtis et al).

In general, these studies find some relationship between adolescent participation and continued adult physical activity. The aspects of adolescent sport/physical activity which correlate with adult participation vary because of differing methodologies, definitions and measurement of the nature and level of sport/physical activity, age at which adult measures are taken and differing cultural contexts. For example, authors variously identify the significant aspects of adolescent participation as intensive endurance sports and those which encourage diversified sports skills (Tammelin et al); competitive inter-school sports (Curtis et al); time spent on activities (Vanreusel et al); participation in pre-teen sports and perceived experience of choice (Taylor et al); high levels of adolescent participation (Perkins et al); the importance of organised activity (Taylor et al, Tammelin et al); extra-curricular school-aged sport (Kraut et al); adolescent physical characteristics and fitness scores (Beunen et al). However, in most cases, because of a range of complex intervening variables, the correlations are mostly weak to moderate and decline with age (Malina; Shepard and Trudeau).

The general conclusion is that childhood and adolescent participation in sport and physical activity makes adult participation much more likely than non-participation (Malina). However, because of a wide range of, often unexplored, intervening variables (eg post school education; social status of parents; gender; life course changes), it cannot guarantee it. Nevertheless, there is a general agreement that the potential for adult participation can be increased by ensuring choice, increasing opportunities for the development of self-efficacy, selecting activities for their potential for post-school participation and addressing issues of gender. In this regard Vihjalmsson and Kristjansdottir illustrate that girls’ lower sports participation can be almost wholly accounted for by their lower levels of enrolment in sports clubs.

These general themes are also present in most of the research on factors that either facilitate or constrain participation. However, Sallis et al’s review illustrates the difficulties in identifying the definitive correlates of physical activity among young people, largely because of methodological limitations on comparison and cumulative understanding.

Others (Biddle; Biddle et al; Allison et al) concentrate on the psychology of motivation, with a broad agreement that sports providers can learn from generic theories of attitudinal and behavioural change (see also Kahn et al). Reflecting some of these ideas, it is suggested that there is a need to understand more about a range of factors that may reduce non-participation (and their implications for sports provision) – self-perceptions (efficacy; competence; control; choice), task-orientation and entity and incremental beliefs about athletic abilities. MacPhail et al reinforce some of these theoretical ideas via group interviews with over 600 young people, concluding that the climate of youth sport needs to be diverse, inclusive and task oriented, rather exclusionary and competitive (ego) oriented.

Payne et al’s research review of sport role models also illustrates the importance of social learning theories and illustrates that, to be effective, role model programmes must be long-term and integrated into wider programmes of support and development.

Others adopt a more environmental approach, suggesting that increased participation is best achieved via holistic approaches – either a ‘whole school’ approach (Rees et al) or a ‘whole community’ approach (Kahn et al).

The researchers included in this section tend to stress particular policy responses required to increase and sustain participation. However, some also identify the need for additional research.

• In terms of increasing childhood and adolescent sports participation, there is a need to explore the extent to which greater choice, non-competitive provision, adapted activities, sense of self-efficacy and the social aspects of sport and exercise can increase participation (especially among young women) and develop on-going commitment.
• There is a need to explore the behavioural factors associated with exercise and physical activity and to view them as dynamic behavioural processes in the context of stages of change and life-cycle changes.
• As no single theoretical model is likely to be successful in predicting physical activity, there is a need to explore how behavioural issues may differ between different social and cultural groups
• Research into the long-term effects of different types of adolescent participation, the importance of different skill levels and sense of self-efficacy.
• There is a need to explore adult participation in so-called ‘life-long sports’ and the extent to which these reflect childhood/adolescent experiences.
• The relative importance of adolescent participation in school and/or community sport for adult participation.
• Longitudinal studies which explore how childhood/ adolescent participation is mediated by such factors as gender, occupation, social status, ethnicity in adulthood.