Summary of entries in psychological health and well-being

Although most of he research in this area covers several related topics, we can identify a number of main categories: the relationship between physical activity and general aspects of psychological well-being; the relationship between physical activity and self-esteem; the role of physical activity in the management of anxiety and depression; work on general life satisfaction material dealing with specific groups (older women, children and young people) and the role which sport can play in assisting personal and social integration of people with disabilitities.

Scully et al review evidence relating to the positive relationships between levels and types of exercise and depression, anxiety, stress and mood states. In relation to self-esteem they conclude that the literature provides little guidance as to which forms of exercise are most beneficial to which types of self-esteem. Fox’s review (2000) concludes that general improvements in self-perception/self-esteem are most likely to occur in those who have most to gain physically from exercise and the greatest improveme ts are most likely in those with low self-esteem physical self-worth and body image.

Fox’s review (1999) illustrates the growing evidence that exercise can be effective in improving mental well-being via improved mood and physical self-perception. Further, it is effective in the treatment of clinical depression and both state and trait anxiety. Taylor reviews research on the role of physical activity in reducing anxiety and stress, concluding that low-to-moderate physical activities can reduce anxiety; that a period of exercise training can reduce trait anxiety in clinical and non-clinical settings and a single exercise session can reduce state anxiety. In a 12-month longitudinal study DiLorenzo et al conclude that increases in aerobic fitness have both short and long-term beneficial effects on psychological outcomes.

Lawlor and Hopker, in a review of research on exercise and the management of depression, conclude that in non-clinical populations both aerobic and non-aerobic exercise can reduce symptoms of depression in the short term. However, they are limited in their conclusions by the poor nature of current research and, like Scully et al, Fox and Taylor, they speculate that measured improvements may be due as much to psychosocial factors as the exercise itself.

Lee and Russell, in a longitudinal study of Australian women in their 70s, conclude that physical activity is associated with emotional well-being (cross-sectionally and longitudinall ). Kotlyn’s survey of women over 60 years of age found significant positive relationships between overall quality of life and energy expenditure and vigorous activities. Chodzko-Zaijko’s review of research on physical activity and aging concluded that regular physical activity is associated with increased psychological well-being, more positive mood states and reduced anxiety.

In a cross-sectional, self-report, study of 9-12 year old children Valois et al conclude that, especially for white females, participation in sports teams may enhance physiological and psychological well-being, contributing to life satisfaction. Tomson et al‘s cross-sectional, self-report study of 8-12 years olds found a strong positive association between depression and levels of physical activity and health-related fitness status - although the relationship between playing sports outside school and depressive symptoms was much more significant for boys than girls. Bunker’s review of research on the contribution of sport and physical activity to the psycho-physiologi al development of girls and young women concludes that psychological and emotional benefits can be maximised by the provision of a wide range of activities, the avoidance of excessive exercise and emphasis on body physique and moderate and regular physical activity.

The material on the contribution of sport to the personal and social integration of people with disabilities is mostly small scale and qualitative. It illustrates that, irrespective of the sport, participation can increase perceived personal and social competence and social acceptance. Taub and Greer’s interview data w th 10-17 year olds with physical disabilities indicate that physical activity provides a normalising experience, facilitating perceptions of legitimation of social identity and enhancing social networks. Kristen et al’s two articles illustrate the perceptions of both parents and their 9-15 year old children. Parents viewed sports participation as providing valuable experiences of being part of a group, feeling of togetherness and providing self-confidence. The participant interviews are used to identify 6 categories of experience, including experienced-based learning, developing self-confidence and social acceptance.

Grof and Kleibert’s interviews with participants in adapted sports illustrate that they provide a heightened sense of competence and opportunities for identity formation. Blinde and Taub’s interviews with male college students (with physical and sensory disabilities) indicate that sports participation resulted in perceived competence as a social actor; facilitation of goal setting and attainment; social integration. Page et al’s study of six competitive disabled athletes illustrates that participation affirmed competence and provided a common social outlet.

There is a general agreement that furt er research is required in a number of areas:

• To provide more precise guidelines regarding the type, intensity and duration of exercise most likely to achieve different outcomes with different populations.
• The identification of the nature of the psychological and physiological mechanisms that lead to the measured outcomes.
• The explorat on of the relationship between activity and context, process and social interactions in the development of aspects of self-esteem and self-confidence.
• The long-term effects of accumulated doses of activity.

The value of sport in promoting quality peer relationships and the role of sport in global self-identities.